FIELD MUSIC OF THE CIVIL WAR,
Including extracts from, The 1861 Revised Regulations, Enactments of Congress, and Customs of Service.
By
David Poulin.
INDEX
MILITARY
MUSIC
Page 1
Regimental Bands
Page 2
Folk Musicians
Page 4
Field Musicians
Page 4
FIELD
MUSIC
Page 6
Camp Calls
Page 6
Field Signals
Page 7
Parade (Marching) Music
Page 8
INSTRUMENTS
Page 8
Fifes
Page 8
Drums
Page 9
Bugles
Page 10
Music Manuals
Page 11
ORGANIZATION
AND DUTIES
Page 12
Uniforms
Page 13
Music Ranks
Page 14
Posting
Page 15
Daily Schedule
Page 15
Fatigue Duty
Page 16
Guard Duty
Page 17
Honors to V.I.P.'s
Page 18
Funeral Honors
Page 19
Inspections of the Troops
Page 19
Retreat, Dress parade, and Reviews
Page 20
Marches
Page 21
Disciplinary Actions
Page 21
Recruiting Service Page 21
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Page 21
MILITARY
MUSIC
There are three types of musicians commonly
associated with military activity during the Civil War period.
Frequently, the three types are not clearly delineated in the minds of
even advanced historians. The three types are "Bandsmen", "Folk
Musicians, and "Field Musicians" (also known as 'The Music').
Terminology is confused in diaries and histories because apparently all
musicians were often referred to as 'bandsmen'.
Music was an important aspect of the Civil War as should be reflected in
our re-enactment efforts. Over
forty thousand musicians were mustered by the U.S. Army while the Confederates
mustered a little over twenty thousand (The Boys' War).
Musicians and their music was so ingrained in the daily routine of Civil
War army life that Robert E. Lee once remarked, "I don't believe we can
have an army without music."
REGIMENTAL
BANDS
Since the first years of the U.S. Army military bands had existed on an
irregular basis. Early U.S. bands
were financed from regimental funds or paid for by their officers. The uniforms were procured by agreements between the
Commissary General of Purchases and the regimental commanders. Usually, the uniforms were simply captured British red
coatees, but sometimes material was procured and new uniforms were fabricated.
In 1832, for instance, in contrast to other units, the 7th U.S. bandsmen
wore a light blue coatee with white trim and dark blue shoulder knots, white
trousers, and black shakos with black vulture feathers.
Early infantry regiments were allowed one chief musician and ten
privates, while artillery units were authorized to have a sergeant, a corporal,
and ten privates. In 1832, the
regulations were changed and bandsmen were paid directly by the army.
By 1861, the regs had been changed again and bandsmen pay was again
financed by regimental funds, supplemented by a tax on the regimental sutler.
U.S. regiments usually recruited their bands from privates in the ranks.
In Federal service the 1861 regulations specified:
81.
When it is desired to have bands of music for regiments, there will be allowed
for each, sixteen privates to act as musicians, in addition to the chief
musicians authorized by law, provided the total number of privates in the
regiment, including the band, does not exceed the legal standard.
Regimental commanders will without delay designate the proportion to be
subtracted from each company for a band, and the "number of recruits
required" will be reported accordingly,
The companies from which the non-commissioned officers of bands for
artillery regiments shall be deducted, will in like manner be designated, and
vacancies left accordingly. At the
artillery school, Fort Monroe, the non-commissioned officers and privates of the
band, will be apportioned among the companies serving at the post.
82.
The musicians of the band will, for the time being, be dropped from company
muster-rolls, but they will be instructed as soldiers, and liable to serve in
the ranks on any occasion. They
will be mustered in a separate squad under the chief musician, with the
non-commissioned staff, and be included in the aggregate of all regimental
returns.
83.
When a regiment occupies several stations the band will be kept at the
headquarters, provided troops (one or more companies) be serving there...
198.
A Post Fund shall be raised at each post by a tax on the sutler...
200.
The following are the objects of expenditure of the post fund; 1st. expenses of
the bake-house; 2d. support of a band; 3d. the post school for soldier's
children; 4th. for formation of a library.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, hundreds of brass bands were recruited
by the newly formed volunteer regiments. They
were often financed by politicians, public donations, regimental officers, and
even sometimes by the bandsmen themselves.
Many famous bandleaders volunteered their services as it was considered a
very patriotic thing to do. A good
band could "drum up" lots of inspired recruits in those days,
especially since the music they played was ‘state of the art’ in popular
entertainment. It is interesting to note
that Congress adopted a different set of regulations for volunteer bands than
for regular army on July 22, 1861:
SEC.2.
And be it further enacted, ...Each regiment of infantry shall have ...two
principal musicians, and twenty four musicians for a band; (and in addition)
each company to consist of... ...two musicians (field music),...
SEC.
7. And be it further enacted, that the bands of the regiments of infantry and of
the regiments of cavalry shall be paid as follows: one fourth of each shall
receive the pay and allowances of sergeants of engineer soldiers; one fourth,
those of corporals of engineer soldiers; and the remaining half, those of
privates of engineer soldiers of the first class; and the leaders of the band
shall receive the same pay and emoluments as second lieutenants of infantry
($105.50/month!).
This meant that volunteer bandsmen not only could be recruited separately
for that specific duty while regular bandsmen were still gun-toting privates
from the ranks, they would be paid a specific sum above the regulars (not a
stipend). The regulars only received $21/month for a Principal Musician
(the same as a sergeant-major), and the other ranks the same as equal ranks of
riflemen with an unspecified stipend from the regimental or post fund.
And then, just to add insult to injury, the bottom of the 1861 regulation
pay list states that:
Volunteers
and militia, when called into service of the United States, are entitled to the
same pay, allowances, &c., as regulars.
Another problem to add to the confusion was that the
use of the title 'Drum Major' meant different things to different people,
depending on whether they were volunteers or regulars.
In the regular service, the drum major would be a graduate of one of the
several Federal field music training schools.
He would be very well versed in fife and drum and quite possibly, the
bugle. To lead a band, he might
need a good musical assistant (many Drum Majors were only versed in Drum Corps).
A volunteer 'drum major', however, was considered to be a Band Leader who
was already experienced in orchestrating the various horn and woodwind band
instruments but knew precious little about field music.
In the "Customs of Service" manual, the author illustrates this
confusion between the new volunteers and the old Army:
219.
The law with regard to drum-majors is obscure, as it allows in the same section
only the pay of a sergeant of cavalry, seventeen dollars; yet no drum-majors are
allowed or recognized by law except in the infantry regiments of the new army,
which by the same law provides that their pay shall be that of second lieutenant
of infantry, implying, however, that the drum-major shall also be the leader of
the band.
I caution the reader when investigating the "Customs of
Service" manual as the author is hopelessly confused in the music section.
I have included the above paragraph only to show how confused some people
(even published military authorities) were on the subject.
Further on, I will only use quotes that are clear and un-contradictory.
In the first sentence above, I believe he is referring to 'Chief
Musicians' (which are different than ‘Principal Musicians’), and later on,
to 'volunteer' band leaders. The
1861 Federal Regulations do authorize a Drum Major (and a Fife Major) for
regimental field music. The
enactments of Congress quoted above specifically refer to bandleaders, but do
not mention a Drum Major for the Field Music.
Volunteer band leaders probably delegated the direction of the fifes and
drums to an assistant (who also may have known very little about it), while they
concentrated on the more popular bandsmen themselves.
The confusion regarding the actual rank of a leader of the Drum Corps is
illustrated by the numerous early war photographs that show Drum Majors with
various types of chevrons on their sleeves.
But the musical gravy didn't last long.
Early in 1862 the War Department issued General Order #92, stating that
bands would only be retained on a brigade level.
The army had decided that it couldn't pay for all the musicians it had
hired and many bands were dismissed from service.
The "Customs of Service" writes:
231.
Each brigade of volunteers is allowed a band of sixteen musicians, and a leader
at forty-five dollars per month, with the clothing and rations of a
quartermaster sergeant.
Some regiments, however, kept their bands by having them take up arms (if
they were willing) and hiding their instruments in the regimental gear.
Despite regulations and maneuvers around them, most bandsmen were
considered to be non-combatants and were not normally asked to carry weapons or
fight in combat. A captured band
would either be set free or retained to play for the enemy. Most of the instruments played in this type of bands were an
incredible assortment of rotary valve brass horns that are not seen today.
Bands in the field could not have woodwinds (oboes, flutes, etc.), at
least for very long, because they were too susceptible to the weather; only
bands stationed at a post could manage to keep a woodwind section.
In addition to the horns, one or two side drums, a bass drum, and
possibly Turkish cymbals would accompany them.
Zyldian process cymbals had been manufactured in Turkey for over 300
years.
The U.S. Government service branches, army, navy, marines, and officer
training schools such as West Point or Annapolis also had their official
military bands; one of the most renowned being "The U.S. Marine Corps
Band". They wore the red
coats, similar to the ones we still see them wearing today.
This custom dates back to the early army practice of having musicians
wear captured British coats.
FOLK
MUSICIANS
Folk Musicians are a well-known type of musician that included any
soldier who carried a folk instrument of his choice in his gear.
Many of the soldiers would form informal ensembles that played and sang
favorite tunes around the evening campfires.
Others were individuals who sang or played instruments on their own.
Some of the instruments played might be guitars, banjos, mandolins,
flutes, pennywhistles, bodhrains (Irish drums), jaw harps, bagpipes, etc.
Harmonicas, which were invented in Europe only two years before the war
broke out, were also a great favorite because of their compact size and
melodramatic sound. Except for a
few of the most popular brass band songs, the tunes played by these musicians
generally weathered the sands of time a little better than the other two
categories.
FIELD
MUSICIANS
Before a unit would have a regimental band, it would first require the
use of Field Musicians. Scott's
Tactics and the 1861 Regulations describe the regimental band as optional, but
not so with the Field Music, who help the officers direct their orders to large
numbers of troops in camp and during battle.
The music they played conveyed specific orders that required specific
responses by the troops. If the
fife and drum manuals of the period are any indication, most of the tunes and
beats played dated back hundreds of years.
While many new tunes and beats were created, they were still mostly based
on the ancient fife and drum medium and not the popular styles of the songs of
the day.
The practice of mustering a fifer and drummer with each company began in
the U.S. with the earliest regiments of the Revolution and continued through the
end of the Civil War. Field
musicians were definitely considered to be military personnel; so much so, that
they eventually became as prime a target for sharpshooters as any officer (Haythornwaite).
As a result, sometimes trimmed jackets were voluntarily replaced with
ordinary sack coats. The field
music was pretty much 'looked down on' by the members of the regimental band, in
fact, the practice of giving bandsmen more distinctive and ornate uniforms began
at West Point where the band didn't want to be associated with the "mere
field music" of the artillery unit stationed there (from Cadet Gray).
The troops called the members of the drum corps 'straw blowers' and
'sheepskin fiddlers'.
As a general practice in the prewar regular U.S.
Army, hundreds of young boys were enlisted and trained at Fort Columbus,
Governor's Island, New York, or at the Newport Barracks in Kentucky.
Although boys 12-15 years old were recruited, modern drum masters say
that it takes two years to make a drummer.
Contemporary French experience proved that it took five years to train a
drummer who could perform adequately in the field, especially under fire, and
ten years to make a good one (Company of Military Historians).
Therefore, most drummers were not boys by the time the army considered
them to be real field musicians. The
boys practiced constantly observing a Spartan life style and rigid schedule.
In the foreword of George P. Carroll's edition of
"Bruce and Emmett's, he writes about a young musician named Augusta Meyers,
aged twelve, who kept a diary of his experience on Governor's Island.
His Company of 50 boys aged 12-15 was crowded into small bunks with
straw-stuffed sacks as mattresses. A
folded coat made a pillow while shoes, knapsacks, drums, and fifes were stored
on a shelf above the bunks. Clothing
hooks were fastened under the shelves where overcoats and other garments were
hung. The boys washed in the hallway from tin basins filled with
cold water. After reveille they
performed exercises on the parade ground, followed by breakfast which consisted
of a small piece of cold salt pork, a bowl of coffee, and a four-ounce piece of
bread buttered with pork fat. After
guard mount and area clean up, music instruction went on for two hours.
The boys were taught the rudiments of music as well as instruction on the
instruments themselves.
Dinner was made up of a bowl of rice and vegetables or bean soup; boiled
salt pork or bacon, bread, and rarely, one or two potatoes.
Afternoon was taken up with music instruction (two more hours) and drill
(another two hours). After retreat
they 'feasted' on a small portion of steamed dried apples, bread, and black
coffee. However, despite the rigid
schedule, the boys got weekends off and, being considered professional
musicians, were paid seven dollars a month (listed in the regs as ‘Musician’
rate). If regular Army trained
individuals were not available, musicians were recruited from private volunteers
in the ranks.
One humorous account of the Seventh U.S. Infantry
involves a private who attempted to become a bugler. The post suffered much until the C.O. could stand it no more
and dropped the project (related by Jim Hall).
Unlike regimental bands which normally accompanied the commanding
officer, field music bivouacked and were posted with their respective companies.
1861 regs:
83....The
field music belonging to companies not stationed at regimental head-quarters
will not be separated from their respective companies.
During the Civil War, the state volunteer regiments
began the practice of enlisting teenage boys straight into regimental service as
musicians (the Regs didn't mention the years of training).
Most of the boys were orphans who adopted the army as their home.
If a boy wanted to join and was too small to handle a musket, he was told
he could carry a drum (The Boys War). These
drummers were trained in the field and often did not have time or the
opportunity to study rudimental drumming. The
ancient standard of excellent drumming could not be maintained throughout the
entire army. Even so, the volunteer
regiments are responsible for giving us the 'drummer boy' image that has become
such a part of the American experience.
In the Union Army alone, records allow that
approximately 100,000 recruits were 16 years old with an equal number of 15 year
olds, and at least 300 boys were 13 or less; the records even show that there
were at least 25 boys no older than 10 years (The Boys' War).
These figures do not reflect the number of youths who lied about their
ages. Some figures say that
somewhere between ten and twenty percent of all the enlisted soldiers were
underage, possibly more so in the Confederacy where many were just school kids
(i.e. the VMI cadets at Newport, and the Citadel Cadets at Charleston, for
instance).
In examining many pictures of volunteer regiments I
have come to the conclusion that initially, many early war units either forgot,
or did not even know about field music (I'm sure the popular bandleaders didn't
have a clue); the proverbial brass band is right there, usually out in front,
but drummers, fifers, and buglers are nowhere to be seen.
However, pictures of very early N.Y. and Rhode Island Militia do show an
adequate staff of drummers or fifers and drummers.
The militia units were (at least initially) better trained in tactics and
use of music than the new volunteers were.
FIELD MUSIC
Despite the varied types of music and musicians our concern herein is
with the instruction of field musicians for use in the direction of troops in
camp and in maneuver. I have
divided field music into three sections, the first being "Camp Calls",
the second being "Field Signals" and "Skirmish Calls", and
the third being "Parade Music".
CAMP
CALLS
Fifes and drums are not the sweetest sounds to be heard, especially at
5:30 or 6:00 in the morning. Many
people do not like the sound at all, ranking fifes along with bagpipes as one of
the most nauseating sounds available; ‘much like holding a cat under the arm
and biting its tail with your teeth -- Robert Heinlein’.
The West Point cadets called the field music "The Hellcats"
because that's exactly what they sounded like at reveille.
The
groggy soldier woke up to a persistent, brain-rattling drumming noise, thrump,
thrump, thrump. He
rolled over in an attempt to ignore the sound and pulled up his blanket
over his head. The drumming went on
and intensified as drummers all over the camp signaled the call to muster.
There was no escaping it, and eventually – and usually with a grumble
-- the soldier got up to start another day."
(from "The Boys' War").
Music manuals of the early 1700's show that each regiment in the British
Army used different calls for its own uses.
One regiment of Fusiliers actually used "The Girl I Left Behind
Me" for assembly (from an obscure bagpipe/fife manual).
By the time of the American Revolution, fife calls had generated some
semblance of regulation, at least by nationality.
That is, the English, Scotch, Irish, Germans, Dutch, French , and Swiss,
all had their own camp duty calls. In
the continental army, Von Steuben helped George Washington establish twenty-one
'beats' at Valley Forge (Old Fort Snelling), most of which seem to have been
based on the British Duty. The drum beats were written first.
Therefore, even in a manual as late as Scott's Tactics, the calls are
still referred to as 'beats", while the bugle calls are referred to as
'sounds'. Compatible fife tunes
were added to the drums later to give the calls more range and tonal variation.
When playing the drum alone, I have had people request that I vary the
beat a little so the troops can tell at which point I am in the call.
Of course, I couldn’t figure out how to do that.
The fife accomplishes that quite nicely, giving the men a tune they can
follow with very little effort.
Although many people have regarded the field music as inferior musicians
playing inferior music, I have been surprised to find that the level of
expertise required to play the camp duty is very high.
The best honorifics I have seen regarding the "Camp Duty" are
in "The Moeller Book", written by a very respected drum instructor and
published by the Ludwig Company. I
quote them here:
The
CAMP DUTY is given here as an exercise in the highest type of execution on the
drum and is recommended for serious study to every student.
No one should disregard it because he is not of a military disposition.
Its figures and beats, while essential to marches, overtures of a
military nature, war music, national airs, etc., are not confined to them but
are found in every class of music. Its
persecutors, who do not understand, die, while it lives on.
Time proves it a classic, its worth being more and more appreciated by
the lovers of art.
It
was written by natural musicians to meet the needs of our soldiers -- for their
guidance and inspiration. It was
handed down showing the perfection and advancement of the drummers of the past
and to what extent drumming has deteriorated.
No
matter how well a drummer can read, if he does not know the rudimental system of
drumming it is impossible for him to play THE THREE CAMPS, BREAKFAST CALL, or in
fact any of the Duty except the simple beats such as THE TROOP.
The
scholarly drummer is a student of eurhythmics and the CAMP DUTY is his last
lesson.
Many of the ancient camp calls survived through to the Civil War period,
some modified and some still in their original forms.
This became the basis of the martial fife and drum tradition in the U.S.
up until the close of the Civil War. Marching
to the same instruments and tunes that their forefathers heard in the American
Revolution helped the troops of both sides feel that their fight was
inextricably linked to the original revolution.
I believe they both were correct.
FIELD
SIGNALS
In addition to Camp Calls the troops were familiarized with field signals
which directed the men when maneuvering in battle.
These calls were made by the drummers without fife accompaniment, while
the fifers were used as orderlies to take messages to and from the various
companies. The ancient practice of using music to direct troops in
battle came about due to the impossibility of hearing the average voice through
the din. Men who could give orders
vocally in battle are noted in diaries as being quite exceptional.
Therefore the usual Movie or reenactment scene of an officer shouting
orders at the top of his voice is probably not as accurate as one is which an
officer gives his commands to the Field Music.
In battalion formation, the Drum Major stands ten paces behind the
Colonel and the Field music is formed behind him.
In order to give a command, the officer must turn around and shout to the
Drum Major, who, in turn, signals the music to play the proper command.
Because of the nature of the 'Music' relaying the
commands, it was probably only at certain times that the musicians actually
played popular tunes during a battle (perhaps during independent fire).
Eyewitness accounts do mention music being played under fire, but they
remark on it greatly, and they usually mention Bands, not Field Music.
However, sometimes they do. When
General Scott's troops overran the British batteries at Chippewa (War of 1812),
it was noted that the entire brigade advanced in parade ground order with drums
beating, fifes playing, and flags waving.
The Bruce and Emmett manual lists seven field
signals. These, I take to be
'Battalion Signals' (as opposed to 'Skirmish Signals'), since they are listed
with the ‘General Call's’, as opposed to the 'Skirmish Calls'. Cayce's Manual lists twenty skirmish calls by drum.
Howe's and Hardee's and Cayce's also give us the required bugle calls.
Drums were also used on a brigade level with the musicians of each
regiment up and down the line taking the signal beat in turn.
Scott's Tactics gives a regulation for this which states that the beat
starts in the center (with the brigadier) goes to the right of the line then
proceeds down to the left and back to the center again (however that works).
Bruce and Emmett indicates that this would also be true in camp as well
as in the field. The Howe manual
lists a call for use "when several regiments are cooperating together in
the field'. But sometime before or
during the Civil War bugles began to be used on a brigade level to avoid
confusion between brigade and regimental calls.
Dan Butterfield developed his own bugle ‘brigade call’ which
indicated that the following call was for his brigade.
On the regimental level, after playing the command to 'Deploy as
Skirmishers', each drummer would run to join his own company commander as they
took their place in the skirmish line. The
drum major would stay with the regimental or battalion commander and would play
the drum as well. The unit
commander would give the order to the drum major who played the required call,
which was echoed by each company drummer, and then executed by the troops.
When the battalion was reformed the drummers would again be mustered with
the Drum Major behind the unit commander.
Delavan Miller, a drummer with the 2nd NY Heavy Artillery, describes a
Sunday show performed for visiting guests by his regiment.
The Colonel demonstrated how he could move the entire unit through a
series of maneuvers and back again, without a single spoken order, by only
whispering the commands to his Drum Major.
One can see how important a drummer could become to his company.
Parade Music is a very important part of maintaining martial order and
spirit. Keeping a regular tempo is
not just for military ambiance, however. During
the first campaign that culminated in the battle of Bull Run, some troops
marched too fast, creating gaps in the line, and others too slow, which caused
the troops behind to have to stand for hours before they could move again.
The line of march must have looked like a giant accordion in action.
Tactics of the day demanded that troops fight in concentrated bodies of
men, but the troops marched so badly that their effectiveness was ruined.
The army had to stop for a couple of days and regroup.
The cadence of the drums also has this purpose.
But a drum can get fairly boring by itself, so the fife is used to create
interest and inspire the men while they march.
While the main purpose of a drum on the march is to keep the cadence, it
is an interesting fact that it is easier to keep a steady cadence on a more
tuneful instrument than it is on a drum. In
fact, the slower the beat, the more difficult it is.
In battle, favorite fife tunes were played to lift the spirits of the
troops. Participants returning from
the Boston Tea Party marched to the tunes of a fife.
The Minutemen at the Battle of Concord listened to the "White
Cockade" while fighting at Concord Bridge.
At Bunker Hill the troops heard "Yankee Doodle" for the first
time in battle, and at Yorktown, as the British musicians played the "The
World Turned Upside Down", General LaFayette ordered the American Light
Infantry Music to play "Yankee Doodle" back at them (from "Old
Fort Snelling"). During the
Civil War it was common for bands to play popular tunes behind the firing lines
-- usually while under fire themselves. In
other words, musicians were expected to inspire the troops whenever and wherever
they could. In the absence of a
regimental band, field musicians were also expected to perform at officer
parties and dances, parades, and funerals.
However the men felt about the fife and drum calls during their period of
service, there is no question of what type music would raise their memories most
in later years. At a postwar G.A.R.
gathering in Buffalo, New York, the spectators thrilled to the crack brass bands
which were there, but:
“...the
veterans went wild as they heard again the (fife and drum) reveille and tattoo
and the old familiar strains of 'Yankee Doodle', 'The Girl I Left Behind Me',
'Rory O'More', 'The Campbells Are Coming', 'Hail to the Chief', and many other
reminders of the old days." -- Delavan Miller, veteran musician of the 2nd
New York Heavy Artillery (from George Carroll's introduction to 'Bruce and
Emmett's).
INSTRUMENTS
Three different instruments were used for field music, so the three
instruments; fife, drum and bugle must be discussed in detail.
FIFES
The fife is a member of the family of instruments known as 'cross' or
'transverse' flutes, so named because the player blows across the instrument
instead of into it. This type of
flute is referenced as early as the 9th century in China.
During the Crusades, the flute was introduced into Europe through the
Middle East, and by the time of the Renaissance it had become an established
institution of European popular music. The
word 'fife' comes from the German word meaning pipe "pfeiffen" and is
sometimes spelled “pfife”. Fifes
were constructed about sixteen inches to 20 inches long and had a blow hole and
six to eleven finger holes. Fifes
were usually made from black ebony, cocuswood or rosewood.
Light colored native hardwoods such as maple were also popular here in
the U. S. Wooden fifes are generally very delicate and need to be well-oiled and
protected from the weather or the wood tends to crack.
The Cloos fifes made of ebony seem to be even more sensitive than
average.
The fife began its modern military career with the Swiss mercenaries in
the early 1500's. From there it
spread to all the western European armies.
The main difficulty in using fifes stemmed from the varying pitches in
which the instrument was manufactured (being carved by hand from a wooden
stick). One of George Washington's
biggest administrative headaches was to sort out shipments of fifes by
compatibility (Old Fort Snelling). In
fact, the problem was so bad for our first president (a man well known to
possess an exceptional 'tin ear') that when the war was over, he gathered all
the colonial army fifes into one big pile and burned them.
Then, he ordered new ones from a single manufacturer which were
coordinated to the same pitch. This
was related to me by Joe Cooperman of the Cooperman Fife and Drum Company.
Colonial fifes tended to be slightly shorter and had
shorter ferrules than their Civil War counterparts. Many fifes were usually pitched in the key of 'C', but
others, especially British fifes, were really "Bb". Interestingly, one sign of a common type of Colonial period
fife is that its pitch is not true, but lies somewhere between a 'B' and a 'Bb'
(Joe Cooperman). Later, it became
evident that the longer fifes pitched in Bb could be heard at greater distances.
By the time of the Civil War, the 'Bb' fife called the Crosby of the
Cloos fifes (different manufacturers) were the prescribed U.S. military
instruments of the day. Another popular type was the German Fife which was made of
German silver. It was much less
susceptible to weather but the tone was less desirable than those produced by a
good wooden fife. Most of the
information I received on fifes was gleaned from "Old Fort Snelling".
DRUMS
The Civil War drum was the product of an ancient process.
In fact, the design patterns and construction methods still used were
over three hundred years old (George P. Carroll in Garofalo and Elrod's).
Although the 1860 drum industry was fairly healthy, the demand was great
and factories were strained to the limits.
The U.S. Army alone purchased over 32,000 drums during the war (The Boy's
War). They came in many sizes since
government contracts did not stipulate exact dimensions or designs.
There was an 1861 regulation describing the approved U.S. Army drum:
113.
The front of the drums will be painted with the arms of the United
States, on a blue field for the infantry, and on a red field for the artillery.
The letter of the company and number of the regiment, under the arms, in
a scroll.
1575.
Drum-sling -- white webbing; to be provided with a brass drumstick carriage,
according to pattern.
But as in everything else issued then, what was made and purchased was
what the troops received. Most of
the drums were about 14 to 16 inches in diameter and 10 to 12 inches deep, and
were substantially heavy. But it
wasn't just the weight. There is a
cantilever effect to such a bulky object, especially when slung around the neck
(Civil War style) instead of over the shoulder (as adapted by Sousa after the
war). Many of the longer old-fashioned drums (16 inches or so in
depth) were cut down in size although it is not known exactly why this was done
(George Carroll's theory: it was the popular band style of drum).
The Society of Military Historians state that mere boys could never
have
maneuvered in the field with early nineteenth century drums.
Some of the drums used were veterans of the Mexican War, War of 1812, and
even the American Revolution; repainted and refitted for 'modern use'.
A very few drums had brass or German silver shells but most were wooden:
ash, rosewood, maple, or white holly (Carroll in Garofalo and Elrod); maple,
ash, oak, beech, spruce, and black walnut (Howe).
Some were even made by barrel makers (coopers, for example: Cooperman
Fife and Drum Company) with the hoops on the inside.
Manufacturers in the U.S. still made wooden shells, while in Europe
(Company of Military Historians), brass shelled drums had been introduced circa
the French Revolution. The European
drums are reported to have had a crisper, sharper sound than the old fashioned
wooden U.S. drums which had a duller but still very loud thump to them.
To be fair, Elias Howe states in the introduction to his manual that:
Formerly
the shells or barrels, were made of brass,
but at present, those of wood are mostly in use; it having been proved
that as a medium of vibration; wood was far
superior to brass, not only in producing a mellow and pure tone, but in
the greater distance it can be heard. (Howe's
Footnote: There is a brass drum
with the German coat of arms stamped into it, now at the State House in Boston,
that was taken from the Hessians attached to Gen. Burgoyne's Army in 1777.
It is the same size as those in use at the present time.)
So, if Howe is any indication, Americans weren't
looking for the thinner, crisper sound but wanted the duller, louder sound.
Personally, I think Howe was reading things backwards, since he seems to
have never heard the metal-shelled drum and only talks about one in a museum; in
addition to the fact that wooden drums had all but gone the way of the dinosaur
in Europe. In reality, the
Americans were probably just slower to respond to the changes in drums.
The heads were made of animal skins (calf or sheep
vellum) tucked over thin, round hoops called flesh hoops, fitted over the shell
and held in place by the counterhoops. Ropes
with leather braces (slides, ears, etc.) adjusted the tension on the heads,
which was tightened for playing and loosened when not in use, in order to keep
the heads from stretching out. These
heads were greatly affected by the weather, unless one is completely devoted to
the hobby of drum tuning and adjusting, using synthetic heads manufactured today
is much more dependable and maintenance free.
We know from actual reenacting experience that a period wooden drum with
skin heads on a wet day sounds a little better than a cow farting in the breeze,
and the infantry takes no notice of them. Drumsticks
were usually made of dark hardwoods, such as rosewood, ebony, or cocobolo; light
"concert sticks" were also sometimes used, but fewer examples of these
would have survived. Bass drums
were also seen, even in the fife and drum corps, as well as in the military
bands.
The Sumter Light Guard, for instance, had one fifer,
one side drummer, and a bass drummer. Early
19th century bass drums were shaped like the side drums but were much longer.
They had to be worn diagonally across the body and played with one hand. Shorter ones could be played with two. Sometime between the War of 1812 and the Civil War the bass
evolved into the flat wide shape it retains today (Company of Military
Historians). Most of the bass drums
in the Civil War were 10" to 12" deep and about 2 feet wide.
Apparently the rudimental bass drummer played a syncopated beat much like
modern tenor drummers instead of the constant, heavy thump, of the modern bass
drum (Carroll in Garofalo and Elrod).
BUGLES
Bugles are the descendants of the ancient long straight trumpets often
seen in movies about ancient and medieval times (though the Roman legions had a
curved variety). The bugle is
actually the same type of horn curled up for ease of handling.
By the 18th century, light infantry (chasseur, French for hunter) units
were using the round-curled hunting horn commemorated by our brass cap badges.
These horns had a softer sound and the calls played in the field had
their origins in the medieval hunting calls, such as used in modern English fox
hunts. The hunting horn became the
symbol for light infantry and eventually, in the U.S., for infantry in general.
During and after this time many experimental shapes were created by horn
manufacturers. This went on until,
eventually, the classic standard bugle/trumpet shape was discerned to be the
best.
Bugles were the original brass band instrument and were introduced to the
U.S. from Europe by a West Point bandmaster in 1815.
They usually had one or two keys and were called 'keyed bugles'; some
were still played in the Civil War, even after the rotary valve horns had taken
over the band market. Bugle music
eventually evolved into sophisticated, interesting calls, even including waltzes
and marches. In the absence of a
band, the drums and bugles were expected to play waltzes for inspections,
marches for parades, and concerts for entertainment – which came especially
hard on the frontier.
Bugles were excellent for cavalry work since they could be played with
one hand. Early on, they became the
unofficial instrument of the U.S. Cavalry.
The artillery was still torn between the use of fife and drum, and the
bugle (possibly because of the ancient distinctions of 'foot' and 'horse'
artillery). Except for light
infantry, or rifle companies, which were usually one company per regiment
(designated company 'B' in Scott's), the bugle was fairly uncommon in the
infantry at the beginning of the Civil War.
Later in the war bugle calls began to replace the fife and drum calls in
usage. Fifers began to fadeout but
the drummers did not. They adapted
their beats (ad lib) to match with the bugle and therefore retained their
usefulness during camp calls and nothing is better than a drum on the march,
except maybe lots of drums. At this
time, each branch of service, infantry, cavalry, artillery and navy was
developing and using its own set of bugle calls.
It is not until 1875 that the bugle was officially adopted by army regs;
interestingly, the fife was still authorized for use as late as 1917 (Old Fort
Snelling). As the veteran drummers
and fifers died out, the drum and bugle corps became the popular type of
military band.
Tradition has it that Civil War bugle cords were colored by Service
Branch -- red for the Artillery, yellow for the Cavalry and blue for the
Infantry. But most of the infantry
units who used bugle early in the war were designated as light infantry or
rifles per ancient traditions. Since
the 1600's green had been the traditional trim (regardless of regimental
facings) for light infantry and rifles, therefore most of the infantry bugle
cording used would have been green, not blue.
Later, when the bugle became equally associated with all the service
branches, and when light infantry and rifle units had become all but extinct (in
usage if not in name), the cording would have been blue for the infantry.
After the Civil War, Sousa reorganized the drum and bugle calls, from the
67 calls in Upton's Infantry Tactics into a single manual of 85 calls for all
branches of service, including the Navy, which are still used (at least in part)
today. Sousa himself wrote the drum
accompaniments to the camp calls. His
intention was that if no bugle was present, the drum would play the call which
could be recognized by the beat. Instead
of using different calls for differing service branches, a bugle with a singular
pitch was used so that the branches could recognize their own distinctive calls.
During the Civil War no such distinction was made and one can see by the
photographs that any type of bugle that could be had was used, in fact, the
assortment of sizes and shapes in pictures is amazing.
MUSIC MANUALS
During
the increase of volunteer troops at the outbreak of the Civil War the Army
schools were in a terrible crunch to produce so many quality military musicians
in such a short period of time. Normally,
only the Principal Musicians from each regiment could attend.
After graduating, they were expected to return to their respective
regiments and train their junior musicians by method of rote memory.
Music theory and rudiments were apparently meagerly applied.
This method produced musicians and songs of various textures and quality.
To
overcome the problems of a non-standardization, a manual was produced in 1862 by
Bruce and Emmett, notable drummer and fifer respectively (Dan Emmett was
principal fifer for the 6th
Infantry and George Bruce was
in charge of the music school at Governor's Island). This manual focused on the rudiments of music and training
exercises as well as the Duty Calls themselves, and was used mostly by New York
regiments on while a similar one was used by Connecticut regiments (Strube's
Drum and Fife Instructor). Massachusetts
and northern New England units must have used Howe's since it was printed in
Boston. Other regiments used Col.
H.C. Hart's "New and Improved Instructor for the Drum" book which
contained tunes of a simpler nature than Bruce and Emmett's; or Rumrille and
Holton's "The Drummer's Instructor; or Martial Musician".
The "Veteran Fifer's Guide"
was written in the early 1900's
by the veterans themselves from both sides of the conflict.
It is interesting that Bruce's drum instruction can be traced back to
direct descendance from the British Duty (George
Carroll).
This means that Napoleanic and Colonial Period drummer re-enactors are
using the same techniques as well as many of the same calls as Civil War
re-enactors.
As
a footnote, "Uncle Dan" Emmett was also the author of
"Dixie", and "Old Dan Tucker"
(Tucker was his dog).
At any rate, the campaign in N.M. was over by mid 1862, I doubt if any
particular instruction manual had significant impact on musicians in the
Territory. In fact, rudiments of
music were still so lacking after the war that John Philip Sousa included a
section in his book in 1886 (authorized by an Act of Congress) "to raise
the teaching of field music from the depths of rote learning".
ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES
Regulations for U.S. and Volunteer regiments authorized two musicians for
each company, one fifer and one drummer, in addition to the Regimental Principal
Musicians, the Drum Major, and the Fife Major, or Principal Fifer.
The drum major was equal to the fife major and would be the rank and pay
of a sergeant major. Artillery
battalions had only one music leader who was designated a 'chief' musician with
the specific rank of sergeant (Company of Military Historians).
`Principal' and `chief' musicians are mentioned alike in the 1861 regs.
Since the pay scale of a principal musician was the same as a sergeant
major, they would have worn chevrons commensurate with their rank, notably the
`Regimental Commissary' chevrons. But
because of the confusion of the 1861 enactments of Congress for Volunteer
regiments, the drum major’s rank is not specified.
Thus we see many volunteer drum majors wearing all types of chevrons
Chief musicians are listed in the regs as sergeants who also having the
privilege or wearing an NCO sash. Based
on the practice shown in the artillery, and on service records, I believe the
infantry units may also have had 'chief' musicians on a battalion level, the
same as artillery. Someone had to
run the battalion sections when the principal musicians were separately
stationed with the colonel of the regiment.
My guess is that there were two chief musicians in a battalion, one for
drummers, and one for fifers. I'm
sure that even military men were frequently confused the difference between
Principal and Chief musicians.
The Drum Major was expected to exemplify military bearing and conduct.
His badges of office were the baton, specific motions of which directed
the band or drum corps in their movements, and the miniature drumsticks mounted
on a decorative baldric. The baton
signals are given in Bruce and Emmett's and Howe's manuals.
In addition to the above ornamentation, the Drum Major's uniform might be
decorated with epaulettes, cords, and distinctive plumed bearskin caps or
shakos. One of his main functions,
besides training and assigning musicians to duties, was to keep the timing and
line of march in a parade. He was
also expected to distribute the regimental mail and act as a banker in some
regiments (from "Cadet Gray"). The
"Customs of Service" has the following to say regarding Drum Majors:
220.
The duties of a drum-major are not prescribed by law or regulations, and are
only deduced by custom. He performs
the same duties with reference to the band that the first sergeant does in
relation to the company. He parades
the band at roll-call and calls the roll, superintends the police of their
quarters, makes out the provision returns, and attends to the drawing of rations
and other issues to the band.
221.
He has the immediate care of the public property in use by the band. He is under the orders and instructions of the adjutant of
the regiment. He drills and
instructs the band in their military duties; and the company musician are
usually under his charge and instruction.
222.
As the leader of the band, he would in addition have charge of the instruction
of the musicians, the arranging of the music, and the selection."
Uniforms
of regimental musicians were the same as those of the other soldiers, but with
additional trim, with the exception that Field Music were the only ones in the
infantry allowed to wear jackets (roundabouts).
That’s why you see the singular field music jackets in photos while all
the infantry are wearing sack coats or frock coats.
The trim is worn on the frocks or roundabouts, never on a sack coat.
The
regulations stating:
1456. For all musicians -- the same as for other enlisted men of their
respective corps, with the addition of a facing of lace three-eighths of an inch
wide on the front of the coat or jacket, made in the following manner; bars of
three-eighths of an inch worsted lace placed on a line with each button six and
one-half inches wide at the bottom, and thence gradually expanding upward to the
last button, counting from the waist up, and contracting from thence to the
bottom of the collar, where it will be six and one-half inches wide, with a
strip of the same lace following the bars at their outer extremity -- the whole
presenting something of what is called the herring-bone form; the color of the
lace facing to correspond with the color of the trimming of the corps.
1457. For fatigue purposes -- a sack coat of dark blue flannel extending
half-way down the thigh, and made loose, without sleeve or body lining, falling
collar, inside pocket on the left side, four coat buttons down the front.
1458. For recruits -- the sack coat will be made with sleeve and body
lining, the latter of flannel.
1506. For all Sergeant Majors, Quartermaster Sergeants, Ordnance
Sergeants, Hospital Stewards, First Sergeants, Principal or Chief Musicians and
Chief Buglers – red worsted sash, with worsted bullion fringe ends; to go
twice around the waist, and to tie behind the left hip, pendent part not to
extend more than eighteen inches below the tie.
1558. To indicate service -- all non-commissioned officers, musicians, and
privates, who have served faithfully for the term of five years, will wear...
...a diagonal half-chevron... A
band [a regimental brass band] will wear the uniform of the regiment or corps to
which it belongs. The commanding
officer may, at the expense of the corps, sanctioned by the Council of
Administration, make such additions in ornaments as he may judge proper.
Field
musicians wore the basic uniform of their unit, and did not usually carry
weapons except for a useless light sword which is not mentioned in the 1861
regulations; conventionally, it was similar to but 4" shorter than the NCO
sword and is designated by historians as being an 1841 model.
Belts were decorated with special buckles (also not mentioned in the 1861
regs) denoting the lyre which was the symbol of musical service; lyre hat badges
were also manufactured (also not mentioned).
Some renditions only show musicians with badges of their service branch
(hunting horn for infantry, crossed cannons for artillery, and crossed sabres
for cavalry); with the regimental number and company letter.
One I could find in which I'm sure the hat lyre's are worn, is a picture
of the West Point band.
On
campaign, a musician would put aside such official trappings in favor of a plain
fatigue cap and blouse. Many
historians imply that musicians wore coats without lace to avoid becoming a
conspicuous target for sharpshooters. I
don't know about that, but I do know that if I were wearing a large, brightly
painted object, hung from my neck with a white strap (a drum), or carrying a
shiny brass horn, a little bit of light blue lace wouldn't bother me much.
This theory might apply better to fifers, who were used as orderlies to
run messages to the various companies. I
think, in time, most of the dress coats wore out and were simply replaced with
fatigues. I would like to also relate that standing in the middle of a
battle (even a mock one at that) with nothing but drumsticks in my hands is one
of the strangest sensations I have ever experienced. A man with a weapon can imagine he has some sort of defense.
It must have been sheer horror to the mere boys who really experienced it
and I think one can see it in their eyes in later war pictures.
Most pictures and researched renditions confirm that principal musicians
wore commissary and quartermaster style chevrons instead of the normal sergeant
major's stripes. This practice
probably stemmed from the fact that they were regimental and battalion staff and
not included in the chain of command. In
the volunteers, the drum corps only had one drum major, but in the regulars,
there wasone drum major and one fife major.
In the volunteers, the other members of the drum corps were paid at the
sub-private (apprentice rate).. The
"Customs of Service" states:
234.
Musicians.--...They receive twelve dollars per month...and the clothing and
rations of privates...
Twelve dollars a month was one dollar less than a private at that time.
In other words, the author above believes that all musicians got the same
pay, and therefore had the same rank, which was less than a private's pay.
I think he is correct for the volunteers.
The enactments of Congress for Volunteers do not mention pay-grades for
field music; because Congress misunderstood the sub-private rank of
‘Musician’, which was reserved for apprentice musicians.
Therefore all volunteer field musicians were paid as sub-privates during
the war.
But I think this is not likely in the regular
service. Every army in the world at
this time recognized musicians as highly-skilled soldiers.
It is very difficult to find any references to musician ranks, but 'Old
Fort Snelling' relates a story of a 5th U.S. musician who retired as a sergeant
and went on to form his own company of militia.
The reason special music ranks are not mentioned in the regs is that
musicians were given the normal pay grades, private, corporal, etc. which could
be easily referenced. Regulation
#118 (regarding fatigue duty) refers to 'private' musicians, which it would not
have to do if all musicians had only a 'musician' rank.
Based on Augustus Meyers' comments, musician rank was simply a level of
apprenticeship. Thus, I think all
regular army musicians were at least privates by the time they reached active
service.
But if so, what ranks would a drum corps have in it?
The 1861 Act of Congress for volunteer bands specifies that band members
would be paid as Engineers: 1/4 as sergeants, 1/4 as corporals, and 1/2 as
privates. Assuming that the basis for this idea of organization stemmed
from existing Field Music practice, this would give a Federal drum corps 10
privates, 5 corporals, and 5 sergeants. But
my best guess would be that there were actually 12 privates, 4 corporals, 2
sergeants, and 2 first sergeants (perhaps the ‘lead drummer’ and ‘lead
fifer’). This would still give
the group a cohesive rank structure when only one battalion was present, but
that is just a guess. But did the
regular field musicians actually wear their stripes? I don’t know, because I cannot find a picture of a Civil
War period regular drum corps. Along
with commissary ranks, these grades were the forerunners of today’s modern
'technical' ranks.
Light Infantry, Skirmish, and Sharpshooter Companies
who were trained to fight in loose formations used the bugle to convey orders.
The regs do not mention how many buglers were assigned to a company, but
the "Customs of Service" prescribes two.
Hardee's Manual dictates three buglers per company.
But before the Mexican War, the Fifth U.S. light infantry company
apparently had only one bugler. The
four rifle regiments of the War of 1812 era were given two buglers in addition
to the usual drummer and fifer. During
the Civil War, the Pennsylvania Bucktails, received two bugles per company,
having been designated as a 'Rifle' regiment, as was designated in the
regulations. Some units were given
bugles when drums weren’t available.
POSTING
At Battalion assembly the musicians formed themselves to the right of the
troops with the Principal Musicians to the right of all.
In battalion maneuver, the musicians formed up behind the center of the
regiment. Buglers always mustered
with the rest of the music. Scott's
Tactics indicates that musicians did not break off from the battalion if their
own company was detached for skirmish. In
parade, the Drum Major marched in front, just behind the color guard, directing
the entire music, while the Fife Major marched to the right of the first rank of
fifers (who preceded the drummers). If
the regiment had a brass band, the field musicians would march just behind them,
while in maneuver, the field music would be in front of the band.
The best or Lead Drummer would take his place to the right of the first
rank of drummers in order to help direct them.
From Scott's 'Infantry Tactics':